If you don't remember your password, you can reset it by entering your email address and clicking the Reset Password button. You will then receive an email that contains a secure link for resetting your password
If the address matches a valid account an email will be sent to __email__ with instructions for resetting your password
Our objective was to characterize semen type prevalence and allocation to inseminate US Holstein and Jersey females by year, parity, service number, and herd size. A secondary objective was to identify the prevalence of beef breed sires selected to create beef × Holstein and beef × Jersey crossbred calves. The final data set included 8,244,653 total inseminations of 4,880,752 Holstein females across 9,155 herds, and 435,267 total inseminations of 266,058 Jersey females across 2,759 herds from October 2019 to July 2021. This data set represents approximately 42 and 27% of the total dairy cows and heifers, respectively, across approximately 40% of the total licensed dairy herds in the continental United States. Holstein and Jersey females were inseminated with 1 of 4 semen types: (1) beef, (2) conventional, (3) sexed, or (4) other dairy. The top 4 beef breeds used to produce beef × Holstein and beef × Jersey crossbred calves, respectively, were Angus (55.1 and 39.1%), Limousin (13.9, and 23.5%), Simmental (11.7 and 20.5%), and Crossbreed Beef (11.3 and 4.8%). From 2019 to 2021, the use of sexed semen to inseminate Holstein and Jersey females increased from 11.0 and 24.5% to 17.7 and 32.1%, respectively, and the use of beef semen to inseminate Holstein and Jersey females increased from 18.2 and 11.4% to 26.1 and 21.2%, respectively. The use of beef semen to inseminate Holstein and Jersey females increased with increasing parity and service number, whereas the use of sexed semen decreased with increasing parity and service number supporting that farmers used sexed semen more aggressively in higher fertility and younger females with greater genetic merit. Overall, the increase in sexed and beef semen inseminations was driven primarily by larger herds. In conclusion, sexed and beef semen inseminations in US Holstein and Jersey females increased from 2019 to 2021 and was allocated differentially based on parity and service number. This increase was driven primarily by larger dairy herds possibly due to differences in reproductive performance and economies of scale.
Over the past 2 decades, the dairy industry in the United States underwent a reproductive revolution. Poor reproductive performance in lactating dairy cows associated with increased genetic selection for milk production and other management factors (
) initiated a pursuit to further understand dairy cow reproductive physiology and the implications of management on reproductive efficiency. Reproductive performance is a key profitability indicator for dairy herds and is the gate keeper to implement other reproductive technologies such as sexed and beef semen. Contributors to increased reproductive performance over the past 2 decades include improvements in management (e.g., minimizing BCS loss and disease incidence during the periparturient period;
The high-fertility cycle: How timely pregnancies in one lactation may lead to less body condition loss, fewer health issues, greater fertility, and reduced early pregnancy losses in the next lactation.
), and the adoption of fertility programs such as Double-Ovsynch, which increases the service rate as well as pregnancies per AI compared with cows inseminated after a detected estrus (
Evaluation of delayed timing of artificial insemination with sex-sorted sperm on pregnancy per artificial insemination in seasonal-calving, pasture-based lactating dairy cows.
). Herds with poor reproductive performance (∼15% 21-d pregnancy rate) seldom use sexed and beef semen insemination strategies because insufficient replacements are produced with a positive income from calves over semen costs (ICOSC;
). By contrast, herds with average or excellent reproductive performance (∼20 to >30% 21-d pregnancy rates) can implement sexed and beef semen insemination strategies because of sufficient production of replacements and positive ICOSC (
). Thus, implementing sexed and beef semen insemination strategies allows herds to precisely manage herd inventory to create essential, genetically elite replacements with sexed semen and increased market value for nonreplacements as beef × dairy crossbred calves. Despite the profitability of sexed and beef semen insemination strategies, minimal data are available on the prevalence and allocation of sexed and beef semen inseminations in Holstein and Jersey females in the United States.
The trend for increased beef semen inseminations is reflected by a 242% increase (6,145,577 straws) in domestic beef semen sales with concurrent decreases in domestic Jersey and Holstein semen sales by 22% (744,920 straws) and 29% (5,585,036 straws), respectively, from 2017 to 2021 (
Beef 2017: Beef Cow-calf Management Practices in the United States, 2017.
USDA, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Services, Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health, and National Animal Health and Monitoring System,
2020
), this increase in beef semen sales has mainly occurred in dairy cattle; however, the prevalence and allocation of sexed and beef semen inseminations of Holstein and Jersey females is not well known. Thus, our primary objective was to determine semen type prevalence and allocation in Holstein and Jersey females in the United States by year, parity, service number, and herd size. A secondary objective was to identify the prevalence of beef breed sires selected to produce beef × Holstein and beef × Jersey crossbred calves.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
No human or animal subjects were used, so this analysis did not require approval by an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee or Institutional Review Board.
Data Description
We analyzed a convenience sample of data from Dairy Records Management Systems (DRMS), which included 9,417,905 inseminations of heifers and lactating dairy cows recorded from October 2019 to July 2021. Of these records, 31,103 were embryo transfers which were removed from the data set. Another 47,940 inseminations were excluded to only include inseminations of nulliparous heifers and lactating dairy cows in the continental United States, resulting in a total of 9,338,862 inseminations. Each insemination record included animal identification number, herd identification code, herd size, breed, parity, insemination date, service number, and a service sire National Association of Animal Breeders (NAAB) uniform code. The herd size for a dairy herd was calculated by DRMS as the number of recorded lactating and dry cows reported at the time of each DHI test day, and herd size was preclassified as <100, 100 to 249, 250 to 499, 500 to 999, or ≥1,000 cows. Parity was stratified into 4 classes including nulliparous heifers, primiparous cows, secundiparous cows, and multiparous cows. Service number was classified as either being first, second, or third or later. The final data sets included 8,244,653 total inseminations of 4,880,752 Holstein females across 9,155 herds (Table 1) and 435,267 total inseminations of 266,058 Jersey females across 2,759 herds (Table 2).
Table 1Description of the final data set of inseminations of Holstein females based on semen type, service number, parity, herd size, number of Holstein females (heifers and lactating dairy cows), and number of herds in the continental United States from October 2019 to July 2021
Herds within a row do not sum to the total because herds left DHI testing, new herds participated in DHI testing, or herds changed to a different herd size based on the calculation of herd size by Dairy Records Management Systems as the number of lactating and dry cows reported at the time of each DHI test day.
<100
4,806
4,733
4,190
5,142
100–249
2,259
2,225
2,035
2,338
250–499
825
814
769
844
500–999
454
457
438
464
≥1,000
360
350
329
367
Total
8,704
8,579
7,761
9,155
1 Herds within a row do not sum to the total because herds left DHI testing, new herds participated in DHI testing, or herds changed to a different herd size based on the calculation of herd size by Dairy Records Management Systems as the number of lactating and dry cows reported at the time of each DHI test day.
Table 2Description of the final data set of inseminations of Jersey females based on semen type, service number, parity, herd size, number of Jersey females (heifers and lactating dairy cows), and number of herds in the continental United States from October 2019 to July 2021
Herds within a row do not sum to the total because herds left DHI testing, new herds participated in DHI testing, or herds changed to a different herd size based on the calculation of herd size by Dairy Records Management Systems as the number of lactating and dry cows reported at the time of each DHI test day.
<100
1,049
1,207
1,012
1,432
100–249
537
620
554
702
250–499
208
251
223
278
500–999
138
164
160
174
≥1,000
140
156
147
173
Total
2,072
2,398
2,096
2,759
1 Herds within a row do not sum to the total because herds left DHI testing, new herds participated in DHI testing, or herds changed to a different herd size based on the calculation of herd size by Dairy Records Management Systems as the number of lactating and dry cows reported at the time of each DHI test day.
The service sire breed and semen type (conventional vs. sexed) were extracted based on service sire NAAB uniform codes. Service sire breeds were categorized as either beef, conventional, sexed, or other dairy. Other dairy for Holstein females consisted of the 6 other recognized US dairy breeds that included Jersey, Brown Swiss, Red and White Holstein, Guernsey, Ayrshire, and Milking Shorthorn. For Jersey females, other dairy consisted of sires from the 6 other recognized US dairy breeds that included Holstein, Brown Swiss, Red and White Holstein, Guernsey, Ayrshire, and Milking Shorthorn. The remainder of the service sires were classified as beef. Only Holstein and Jersey inseminations were classified as either conventional or sexed semen because of the few numbers of sexed semen inseminations for other breeds. Thus, the 4 types of semen that Holstein or Jersey females were inseminated with were (1) beef, (2) conventional, (3) sexed, or (4) other dairy.
Statistical Analyses
All statistical analyses were performed using R Studio via R computational software version 4.0.5 (The R Foundation for Statistical Computing Platform). Within a breed (i.e., Holstein or Jersey) for each semen type (i.e., beef, conventional, sexed, and other dairy inseminations) a multivariable logistic regression model was fitted. For each model, the binary response variable was equal to 1 if the insemination was performed with semen type of interest or 0 otherwise. Each model included the fixed effects of year, parity, herd size, service number, and all 2-way interactions. The predicted probabilities, standard error, ANOVA type III fixed effects, and 95% confidence intervals were obtained. A significant difference in the fixed effects was considered when P ≤ 0.05 and a statistical tendency when 0.10 ≥ P ≥ 0.05.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The relative frequencies, ANOVA type III fixed effects, predicted probabilities, and 95% confidence intervals for each semen type model are included in Supplemental Tables S1, S2, and S3 (https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/rnsjpc7nfp/1;
) for Jersey females. All 2-way interactions were significant (P < 0.0001) for each semen type model for Holsteins. For Jerseys, all 2-way interactions were significant (P < 0.0001) for each semen type model except for statistical tendencies for (1) beef: year × service number (P = 0.07) and (2) Jersey-Conventional: parity × service number (P = 0.08). For brevity, the predicted probabilities are presented for beef and sexed semen of Holstein and Jersey females for the 4 key 2-way interactions including year × parity, year × service number, service number × parity, and year × herd size.
Inseminations of Holstein and Jersey females occurred in the Midwest (51.3 and 47.2%, respectively), Northeast (36.9 and 33.7%), Southeast (6.7 and 9.5%), Southwest (3.2 and 5.3%), and West (1.9 and 4.1%) geographic regions of the continental United States (Table 3). Geographically, more inseminations occurred in the Midwest and Northeast of the continental United States reflective of the DRMS customer base. In the United States in 2021, the dairy heifer and lactating cow population was approximately 4,304,250 and 9,448,000, respectively, across 29,858 licensed dairy herds (
). Thus, the final data set with 1,164,015 and 3,982,795 heifers and lactating cows, respectively, represents approximately 27 and 42% of the total dairy heifers and lactating cows across approximately 40% of the total licensed dairy herds in the continental United States.
Table 3Relative frequency of inseminations of Holstein and Jersey females in the continental United States based on geographical region from October 2019 to July 2021
Geographical region of inseminations is based on the location of herds in Dairy Records Management Systems customer base, which is primarily located in the Midwest and Northeast geographical regions of the continental United States.
California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.
153,455
1.9
23,278
4.1
1 Geographical region of inseminations is based on the location of herds in Dairy Records Management Systems customer base, which is primarily located in the Midwest and Northeast geographical regions of the continental United States.
2 Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, Minnesota, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin.
3 Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island.
4 Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia.
The breeds of sires comprising beef inseminations of Holstein females in order of prevalence were Angus (55.1%), Limousin (13.9%), Simmental (11.7%), Crossbred Beef (11.3%), Wagyu (1.6%), and other sire breeds consisting of less than 1% of total beef inseminations of Holstein females (6.4%; Table 4). For Jersey females, the breeds of sires comprising beef inseminations in order of prevalence were Angus (39.1%), Limousin (23.5%), Simmental (20.5%), Crossbred Beef (4.8%), Pooled Sample with multiple sire breeds (1.9%), Jamaica Hope (1.7%), Limousin-Angus (1.5%), Charolais (1.3%), and other sire breeds contributing less than 1% of total beef inseminations of Jersey females (5.7%; Table 4).
reported Angus sires were 95.4% of the reported beef inseminations of dairy cattle in the United States in 2019 based on records from the Council on Dairy Cattle Breeding (https://uscdcb.com). For Jersey females, 79.6 and 15.0% of beef inseminations were to Angus and Gelbvieh, respectively (
). In 2018, a survey of primarily Holstein herds in Wisconsin, Iowa, and Michigan reported that beef breed sires with the greatest prevalence were Angus (62%) followed by Limousin-Angus (12%), Limousin (11%), Simmental-Angus (7%), Simmental (6%), and other beef sires (2%;
). In California, in which 8% of dairy herds surveyed were Jersey herds, the top responses for beef breed sires for inseminations of dairy cows were Angus (64.9%), Wagyu (11.7%), and Limousin (9.1%;
Table 4Relative frequency of beef breed sires consisting of beef semen inseminations of Holstein and Jersey females in the continental United States from October 2019 to July 2021
The main selection criteria of beef sires reported by dairy farmers include semen cost, conception rate, calving ease, a black hide, and the preference of the calf raiser with little consideration for carcass traits (
) developed indices for beef sire selection for matings of dairy cattle. These selection indices include traits related to fertility and calving ease, but also include feed intake and carcass traits related to US beef production (
). In addition, AI organizations now offer selection indices for beef sire selection for matings of dairy cattle and programs with established distribution channels for beef × dairy animals to feedlots and processors. Eating quality attributes of beef × dairy crossbred calves are similar to conventional beef cattle, but opportunities for further market acceptance include increasing total carcass muscling and decreasing liver abscess condemnations at slaughter (
). Thus, beef sires selected to produce beef × dairy crossbred calves and the management of crossbreds should be a priority to dairy farmers to maintain market access.
The lack of market acceptance is more heavily biased against beef × Jersey crossbreds than beef × Holstein crossbreds due to poorer primal cut yields and the more yellow-colored fat of beef × Jersey crossbred cattle (
). An alternative strategy for Jersey herds to capture increased market value for nonreplacements may be through the transfer of commercial black Angus-based in vitro fertilization (IVF) embryos with a potential premium of $350 to $400 per calf (
). A limitation of this strategy is the increased pregnancy loss associated with frozen/thawed IVF embryos compared with pregnancies produced using AI (
Effect of treatment with human chorionic gonadotropin 7 days after artificial insemination or at the time of embryo transfer on reproductive outcomes in nulliparous Holstein heifers.
From 2019 to 2021, inseminations with beef semen of Holstein (nulliparous, 8.35 vs. 8.09 vs. 8.29%; primiparous, 10.87 vs. 12.95 vs. 15.79%; secundiparous, 13.53 vs. 17.89 vs. 21.96%; and multiparous, 18.61 vs. 22.93 vs. 28.24%) and Jersey (nulliparous, 9.06 vs. 5.54 vs. 7.41%; primiparous, 8.10 vs. 12.23 vs. 15.35%; secundiparous, 10.42 vs. 14.59 vs. 17.02%; and multiparous, 12.22 vs. 16.04 vs. 20.87%) females increased as parity increased (P < 0.0001; Table 5). In the western United States, beef semen inseminations increased by 600% from 2014 to 2017, and beef semen was used for 45% of the inseminations of multiparous cows (
). In 2020, 70% of California dairy herds surveyed (in which 8% of herds reported to be Jersey herds) responded that they began to use beef semen within the past 3 yr, and 28.9% of these herds reported that they inseminated more than 30% of their cows with beef semen (
Table 5Predicted probabilities ± SE considering year and parity for beef, conventional, sexed, and other dairy semen inseminations of Holstein and Jersey females
From 2019 to 2021, inseminations with sexed semen of Holstein (nulliparous, 20.83 vs. 25.58 vs. 33.24%; primiparous, 5.69 vs. 8.03 vs. 8.48%; secundiparous, 3.67 vs. 5.20 vs. 5.26%; and multiparous, 2.51 vs. 3.38 vs. 3.83%) and Jersey (nulliparous, 29.20 vs. 34.60 vs. 47.70%; primiparous, 20.40 vs. 25.10 vs. 27.40%; secundiparous, 19.80 vs. 23.20 vs. 24.20%; and multiparous, 17.00 vs. 20.20 vs. 21.10%) females increased (P < 0.0001) but mostly in nulliparous heifers (Table 5). When sexed semen became commercially available in 2006, only 1.4 and 0.1% of Holstein heifers and cows, respectively, were inseminated with sexed semen, and these proportions increased to 17.8 and 0.4% of Holstein heifers and cows by 2008 (
reported an increase in US Holsteins inseminated with sexed semen from 9 to 31% and 0.2 to 1% in Holstein heifers and lactating dairy cows, respectively, from 2007 to 2015. In the western United States, inseminations with sexed semen increased by 300% from 2014 to 2017 (
). Improvements in management during the periparturient period as well as the development and adoption of fertility programs, such as the Double-Ovsynch protocol (
), have led to increased fertility in lactating cows thereby allowing for use of sexed semen. Optimizing the fertility of sexed semen in lactating dairy cows is of great interest because the use of sexed semen in lactating dairy cows continues to increase (
Evaluation of delayed timing of artificial insemination with sex-sorted sperm on pregnancy per artificial insemination in seasonal-calving, pasture-based lactating dairy cows.
Short communication: Effect of timing of induction of ovulation relative to timed artificial insemination using sexed semen on pregnancy outcomes in primiparous Holstein cows.
). The concurrent increase in beef and sexed semen inseminations over the past 3 yr suggests that dairy farmers are using both semen types as a precision management tool to regulate herd inventory and increase the value of calves.
Year × Service Number
Dairy farmers prefer to inseminate females with poor reproductive performance and with less genetic merit on average with beef semen. From 2019 to 2021, inseminations of Holstein females with beef semen increased (P < 0.0001; first, 7.74 vs. 9.22 vs. 10.57%; second, 10.45 vs. 12.55 vs. 14.85%; and third or more, 22.32 vs. 25.47 vs. 30.45%; Table 6) and tended to increase (P = 0.07) for Jersey females (first, 5.67 vs. 6.36 vs. 8.04%; second, 8.10 vs. 9.58 vs. 12.14%; and third or more, 19.74 vs. 22.46 vs. 27.97%; Table 6) as service number increased.
reported a greater mean service number for inseminations with Angus semen (2.87 and 3.04 for Holstein heifers and cows, respectively) than for conventional Holstein semen (1.92 and 2.13 for Holstein heifers and cows, respectively). Further,
reported a survey in which California dairy farmers began using beef semen at the third (45.3%), fourth (32.8%), and fifth or later (28.1%) service. Despite perceptions of fertility differences between beef and Holstein sires, the conception rates of beef and Holstein sires are confounded by service number because dairy farmers preferentially inseminate older females with less genetic merit on average and poorer reproductive performance with beef semen (
). In a randomized controlled study, lactating Jersey cows submitted to a Double-Ovsynch protocol for first service insemination with conventional beef semen had pregnancies per AI of 56% at 61 d after AI (
Fertility of Jersey cows inseminated with sexed Jersey or conventional beef semen and submitted to a Double-Ovsynch protocol and timed artificial insemination versus artificial insemination after synchronization of estrus.
Table 6Predicted probabilities ± SE considering year and service number for beef, conventional, sexed, and other dairy semen inseminations of Holstein and Jersey females
Although total inseminations with sexed semen increased (P < 0.0001) for Holstein (first, 10.08 vs. 12.98 vs. 15.76%; second, 6.67 vs. 9.16 vs. 10.65%; and third or later, 2.99 vs. 4.21 vs. 4.35%) and Jersey (first, 30.80 vs. 34.30%vs. 40.50%; second, 24.40 vs. 28.50 vs. 32.60%; and third or later, 12.00 vs. 16.10 vs. 17.70%) females from 2019 to 2021, use of sexed semen decreased markedly with increasing service number (Table 6).
reported increased inseminations with sexed semen from 2006 to 2008 that decreased with increasing service number in Holstein heifers and cows. The relative fertility of sexed semen is approximately 70 to 84% of conventional semen in randomized, controlled experiments (
Evaluation of delayed timing of artificial insemination with sex-sorted sperm on pregnancy per artificial insemination in seasonal-calving, pasture-based lactating dairy cows.
). Thus, dairy farmers are likely using more sexed semen at first service because of greater fertility associated with first service.
Service Number × Parity
Beef semen allocation increased (P < 0.0001) as parity and service number increased for Holstein (nulliparous, 3.73 vs. 5.78 vs. 23.35%; primiparous, 7.46 vs. 11.26 vs. 24.97%; secundiparous, 12.34 vs. 16.01 vs. 26.34%; and multiparous, 18.65 vs. 21.95 vs. 29.35%; Table 7) and Jersey (nulliparous, 2.94 vs. 4.37 vs. 25.28%; primiparous, 5.65 vs. 11.14 vs. 22.86%; secundiparous, 8.57 vs. 12.82 vs. 22.82%; and multiparous, 12.97 vs. 14.29 vs. 22.01%; Table 7) females. The highest ranked selection criteria for females for beef semen inseminations reported by dairy farmers surveyed in the Midwest and California included reproductive performance, parity, and milk production (
). Figure 1, Figure 2 depict this selection criteria preference as beef semen inseminations increased with increasing parity and service number for Holstein and Jersey females, respectively.
Table 7Predicted probabilities ± SE considering service number and parity for beef, conventional, sexed, and other dairy semen inseminations of Holstein and Jersey females
Figure 1Relative frequency of beef, Holstein-conventional, Holstein-sexed, and other dairy semen inseminations of Holstein females (nulliparous to multiparous) by service number (1 to 3+) from 2019 to 2021 in the continental United States.
Figure 2Relative frequency of beef, Jersey-conventional, Jersey-sexed, and other dairy semen inseminations of Jersey females (nulliparous to multiparous) by service number (1 to 3+) from 2019 to 2021 in the continental United States.
Dairy farmers preferentially use sexed semen on younger females at first service because on average, their genetic merit and fertility are greater than that of older females. Sexed semen allocation decreased (P < 0.0001) as parity and service number increased for Holstein (nulliparous, 36.96 vs. 31.11 vs. 14.53%; primiparous, 13.30 vs. 8.60 vs. 3.27%; secundiparous, 8.34 vs. 5.27 vs. 2.24%; and multiparous, 5.29 vs. 3.34 vs. 1.82%; Table 7, Figure 1) and Jersey (nulliparous, 50.00 vs. 43.80 vs. 20.30%; primiparous, 34.20 vs. 26.70 vs. 14.60%; secundiparous, 31.30 vs. 24.60 vs. 13.80%; and multiparous, 26.60 vs. 21.10 vs. 12.50%; Table 7, Figure 2) females.
reported more sexed semen inseminations in Holstein heifers than Holstein cows in 2008 (17.8 vs. 0.4%). Thus, sexed and beef semen is allocated differentially by farmers based on service number and parity (Figure 1, Figure 2).
Selection of females for insemination with sexed, conventional, or beef semen is a complex process involving many variables not limited to reproductive performance, herd inventory, and current market conditions that affect herd profitability. The development and accessibility of decision support tools such as the Premium Beef on Dairy tool from the University of Wisconsin-Madison (https://dairymgt.info;
) allows dairy farmers to determine an optimal mating strategy when using beef, conventional, and sexed semen based on actual farm data. This tool, however, does not include the potential profitability from increased genetic progress from increased selection intensity.
The use of parent average predicted transmitting abilities and genomic testing were the lowest ranked selection criteria for beef semen inseminations based on surveys of dairy farmers (
). Genomic selection increases the reliability of breeding values and could increase genetic progress and farm profitability when paired with sexed and beef semen to increase dam selection intensity (
). The use of genomic reliabilities in economic modeling found the optimal insemination strategy using a combination of sexed, conventional, and beef semen (
). Thus, the profitability of using sexed and beef semen inseminations is complex and may be underestimated if not considering varying levels of reproductive performance and genetic progress.
Year × Herd Size
From 2019 to 2021, inseminations with beef semen of Holstein (<100 cows, 7.87 vs. 8.61 vs. 10.33%; 100–249 cows, 9.30 vs. 10.84 vs. 12.20%; 250–499 cows, 11.14 vs. 13.41 vs. 16.19%; 500–999 cows, 14.71 vs. 18.44 vs. 21.26%; and ≥1,000 cows, 22.84 vs. 26.56 vs. 31.88%; Figure 3) and Jersey (<100 cows, 4.66 vs. 5.50 vs. 7.71%; 100–249 cows, 6.85 vs. 7.64 vs. 8.99%; 250–499 cows, 13.48 vs. 13.45 vs. 14.25%; 500–999 cows, 11.63 vs. 11.67 vs. 15.99%; and ≥1,000 cows, 17.39 vs. 25.63 vs. 33.49%; Figure 4) females increased (P < 0.0001) as herd size increased (Table 8).
reported a greater percentage of beef semen inseminations in 2017 as herd size increased (small, <694 cows, 0.6%; medium, 694–2,296 cows, 1.2%; and large, >2,296 cows, 1.4%). Similarly, from 2019 to 2021, inseminations with sexed semen of Holstein (<100 cows, 4.17 vs. 5.02 vs. 5.43%; 100–249 cows, 5.31 vs. 6.92 vs. 7.65%; 250–499 cows, 5.65 vs. 7.31 vs. 8.52%; 500–999 cows, 6.52 vs. 8.77 vs. 10.55%; and ≥1,000 cows, 8.74 vs. 14.42 vs. 16.38%; Figure 3) and Jersey (<100 cows, 12.70 vs. 16.70 vs. 19.40%; 100–249 cows, 19.90 vs. 25.20 vs. 27.50%; 250–499 cows, 23.10 vs. 26.00 vs. 33.80%; 500–999 cows, 27.90 vs. 32.50 vs. 37.00%; and ≥1,000 cows, 25.40 vs. 28.90 vs. 30.70%; Figure 4) females increased (P < 0.0001) as herd size increased (Table 8). Greater use of sexed and beef semen by larger dairy herds may be due to increased reproductive performance and economies of scale. The average 21-d pregnancy rate in Holstein herds increases with increasing herd size (<100 cows, 13.7%; 100–250 cows, 18.2%; 250–500 cows, 22.7%; 500–1,000 cows, 24.8%; and >1,000 cows, 28.0%;
). Reproductive performance affects the ability of a dairy herd to implement other reproductive technologies such as beef and sexed semen.
Figure 3Relative frequency of beef, Holstein-conventional, Holstein-sexed, and other dairy semen inseminations of Holstein females (nulliparous to multiparous) by herd size (<100 cows to ≥1,000 cows) from 2019 to 2021 in the continental United States.
Figure 4Relative frequency of beef, Jersey-conventional, Jersey-sexed, and other dairy semen inseminations of Jersey females (nulliparous to multiparous) by herd size (<100 cows to ≥1,000 cows) from 2019 to 2021 in the continental United States.
Table 8Predicted probabilities ± SE considering year and herd size for beef, conventional, sexed, and other dairy semen inseminations of Holstein and Jersey females
Income from calves over semen costs is an economic value that considers reproductive performance of a herd, price of semen, required replacements to maintain herd size, and the market value of calves and is used to determine an optimal insemination strategy (positive ICOSC) with conventional, sexed, or beef semen (
). For dairy herds with poor reproductive performance (∼15% 21-d pregnancy rate), there is no optimal insemination strategy because not enough replacements are produced with a positive ICOSC (
). Herds with average reproductive performance (∼20% 21-d pregnancy rate) can produce sufficient replacements with a maximum ICOSC of $2,001 when inseminating heifers for the first 2 services and primiparous and secundiparous cows for first service with sexed semen with the remainder of heifers inseminated with conventional dairy semen and lactating dairy cows inseminated with beef semen (
). For excellent reproductive performance (∼30% 21-d pregnancy rate) herds, sufficient replacements and the maximum ICOSC of $6,215 occurred when inseminating heifers for first service with sexed semen with the remainder of heifers with conventional dairy semen and lactating dairy cows inseminated with beef semen (
When a herd achieves a level of reproductive performance that allows for implementing use of sexed and beef semen, success is dependent on market accessibility and current market conditions. Overall, 71% of Midwest dairy herd respondents sold less than one-week-old beef × dairy crossbred calves in 2018 (
). Of respondents marketing beef × dairy calves and feeder cattle, 54% of sales were through a public auction market, 29% were sold private treaty, and 8% were sold through a contract agreement with a cattle feeder (
). Only 20% of dairy herds reported marketing beef × dairy finished cattle with 67% of these herds selling beef × dairy finished cattle through a public auction market and 33% sold by grade and yield (
). Smaller herds with less capital and access to markets and marketing information likely sell beef × dairy calves through a public auction market that is more sensitive to market volatility. By contrast, larger herds leverage economies of scale to market beef × dairy crossbred calves through private treaty, contract agreement with a feeder, or raise beef × dairy crossbred calves through to finishing within their own diversified operations. Further, many dairy herds are requesting resources on how to market beef × dairy crossbred calves (
). Programs for dairy farmers are available through artificial insemination organizations with selection indices for beef sires specifically to create beef × dairy calves and market through established distribution channels to calf raisers, feedlots, and packers. The accessibility of these programs, however, may vary depending on the location and size of a dairy herd in addition to the options for ownership. Thus, as the beef × dairy crossbred market expands, it is critical to provide dairy herds with marketing resources in addition to selection indices and management practices to produce the ideal beef × dairy crossbred calves.
CONCLUSIONS
Over a 3-yr period from 2019 to 2021, sexed and beef semen inseminations in US Holstein and Jersey females increased. Allocation of sexed and beef semen is dependent on the parity, service number, and herd size. Increased sexed and beef semen inseminations are driven by larger dairy herds that allocate semen type based on parity and service number than smaller dairy herds. Herd size differences in semen allocation may be due to differences in reproductive performance and economies of scale. Further, it is critical to provide dairy herds market access and resources to capitalize on producing an ideal beef × dairy crossbred calf. As the dairy industry continues to evolve, re-evaluation of how semen type is being allocated in US Holstein and Jersey females in the future is critical as increased adoption of newer reproductive technologies such as dairy IVF embryos, sexed beef semen, and beef IVF embryos may be more prominent.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture (Washington, DC) CARE project 2021-68008-34105 to P. M. Fricke. The authors have not stated any conflicts of interest.
REFERENCES
Berry D.P.
Invited review: Beef-on-dairy-The generation of crossbred beef × dairy cattle.
Evaluation of delayed timing of artificial insemination with sex-sorted sperm on pregnancy per artificial insemination in seasonal-calving, pasture-based lactating dairy cows.
Fertility of Jersey cows inseminated with sexed Jersey or conventional beef semen and submitted to a Double-Ovsynch protocol and timed artificial insemination versus artificial insemination after synchronization of estrus.
Short communication: Effect of timing of induction of ovulation relative to timed artificial insemination using sexed semen on pregnancy outcomes in primiparous Holstein cows.
The high-fertility cycle: How timely pregnancies in one lactation may lead to less body condition loss, fewer health issues, greater fertility, and reduced early pregnancy losses in the next lactation.
Effect of treatment with human chorionic gonadotropin 7 days after artificial insemination or at the time of embryo transfer on reproductive outcomes in nulliparous Holstein heifers.
Beef 2017: Beef Cow-calf Management Practices in the United States, 2017.
USDA, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Services, Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health, and National Animal Health and Monitoring System,
2020
00128-5&id=gr1.jpg){kind=link}
00128-5&id=gr2.jpg){kind=link}
00128-5&id=gr3.jpg){kind=link}
00128-5&id=gr4.jpg){kind=link}