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The objective of this study was to evaluate lactational performance, enteric gas emissions, ruminal fermentation, nutrient use efficiency, milk fatty acid profile, and energy and inflammatory markers in blood of peak-lactation dairy cows fed diets supplemented with Capsicum oleoresin or a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove oil. A 10-wk randomized complete block design experiment was conducted with 18 primiparous and 30 multiparous Holstein cows. Cows were blocked based on parity, days in milk, and milk yield (MY), and randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatments (16 cows/treatment): (1) basal diet (CON); (2) basal diet supplemented with 300 mg/cow per day of Capsicum oleoresin (CAP); and (3) basal diet supplemented with 300 mg/cow per day of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove oil (CAPCO). Premixes containing ground corn (CON), CAP, or CAPCO were mixed daily with the basal diet at 0.8% of dry matter intake (DMI). Supplementation of the diet with CAP or CAPCO did not affect DMI, MY, milk components, and feed efficiency of the cows. Body weight (BW) was increased during the last 2 wk of the experiment by CAP and CAPCO, compared with CON. The botanicals improved BW gain (0.85 and 0.66 kg/d for CAP and CAPCO, respectively, compared with −0.01 kg/d for CON) and CAP enhanced the efficiency of energy utilization, compared with CON (94.5% vs. 78.4%, respectively). Daily CH4 emission was not affected by treatments, but CH4 emission yield (per kg of DMI) and intensity (per kg of MY) were decreased by up to 11% by CAPCO supplementation, compared with CON and CAP. A treatment × parity interaction indicated that the CH4 mitigation effect was pronounced in primiparous but not in multiparous cows. Ruminal molar proportion of propionate was decreased by botanicals, compared with CON. Concentrations of trans-10 C18:1 and total trans fatty acids in milk fat were decreased by CAP and tended to be decreased by CAPCO, compared with CON. Total-tract apparent digestibility of nutrients was not affected by treatments, except for a tendency for decreased starch digestibility in cows supplemented with botanicals. Blood concentrations of β-hydroxybutyrate, total fatty acids, and insulin were not affected by botanicals. Blood haptoglobin concentration was increased by CAP in multiparous but not in primiparous cows. Lactational performance of peak-lactation dairy cows was not affected by the botanicals in this study, but they appeared to improve efficiency of energy utilization and partitioned energy toward BW gain. In addition, CH4 yield and intensity were decreased in primiparous cows fed CAPCO, suggesting a potential positive environmental effect of the combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove oil supplementation.
Botanicals, essential oils, phytonutrients, phytochemicals, and nutraceuticals are terms commonly used to define a diverse category of organic compounds derived from the secondary metabolism in plants with a broad spectrum of biological activities when fed to animals. Many of these plants, or associated compounds, are categorized as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration of the United States (
), and they may be an alternative for improving dairy environmental sustainability, with greater appeal for consumers, when compared with synthetic feed additives. Because nutrition is an effective way to increase dairy cow efficiency and decrease excretion of nutrients, adoption of feeding strategies and use of feed additives to mitigate the environmental impact of dairy production are being thoroughly investigated (
An evaluation of emerging feed additives to reduce methane emissions from livestock. Edition 1. A report coordinated by Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and the New Zealand Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research Centre (NZAGRC) initiative of the Global Research Alliance (GRA).
). This category of feed additives is highly diverse and several factors such as chemical composition, application dose, adaptation of the rumen ecosystem, animal type and productivity, and ingredient and nutrient composition of the basal diet can affect their performance (
). Individual plant-derived compounds have been demonstrated to have a CH4 mitigation effect in vitro, but more research is needed to determine optimal conditions and combinations of compounds to achieve significant mitigation in vivo (
Eugenol (4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol; C10H12O2; the bioactive compound of clove oil) is a phenylpropanoid known for its wide-spectrum antimicrobial activity through its capacity to interact with the cell membrane of both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria (
). Capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6nonenamide; C18H27NO3; the bioactive compound of Capsicum oleoresin), in contrast, is a tetraterpenoid with a low number of oxygen molecules and reduced antimicrobial activity compared with other botanicals (
). Despite its relatively reduced antimicrobial activity, Capsicum oleoresin supplementation has been demonstrated to promote host-mediated effects when fed to dairy cows (
Effects of plant-derived bio-active compounds on rumen fermentation, nutrient utilization, immune response, and productivity of ruminant animals.
in: Jeliazkov (Zheljazkov) V.D. Cantrell C.L. Medicinal and Aromatic Crops: Production, Phytochemistry, and Utilization. American Chemical Society Publications,
Washington, DC2016: 167-186
). Considering molecular differences and a potentially distinct mode of action between Capsicum oleoresin and clove oil, it can be hypothesized that a combination of these 2 botanicals would affect both ruminal fermentation and physiology of dairy cows, thereby reflecting changes in lactational performance, milk fatty acid (FA) profile, energy markers in blood, and enteric CH4 emission. Nevertheless, to this date, only 1 study (
Effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove essential oil on metabolic status, lactational performance, and enteric methane emissions in dairy cows.
) has evaluated the effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove oil, and the interactions of botanical supplementation with animal and dietary factors such as parity, stage of lactation, dietary energy concentration, and its long-term effects on ruminal fermentation and enteric CH4 emissions remain to be determined.
The objective of this study was to investigate lactational performance, enteric gas emissions, ruminal fermentation, nutrient digestibility, milk FA profile, N use efficiency, and energy and inflammatory markers in blood of peak-lactation dairy cows fed diets supplemented with Capsicum oleoresin alone or in combination with clove oil. A previous crossover dose-response experiment conducted by our group demonstrated that dietary supplementation of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove oil linearly decreased daily enteric CH4 emission, quadratically decreased blood BHB concentration, and tended to increase milk fat concentration in lactating dairy cows (
Effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove essential oil on metabolic status, lactational performance, and enteric methane emissions in dairy cows.
). We hypothesized that supplementation of botanicals would improve lactational performance and energy balance, while reducing enteric CH4 emission yield and intensity in peak-lactation cows. These changes would also be associated with improved ruminal fermentation and efficiency of nutrient utilization, but responses to botanical supplementation could be different between primiparous and multiparous cows. Therefore, a secondary objective was to investigate a treatment × parity interaction of botanical supplementation.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Animals involved in this experiment were cared for according to the guidelines of The Pennsylvania State University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
Animals, Experimental Design, and Treatments
A randomized complete block design experiment was conducted with 48 Holstein cows (18 primiparous and 30 multiparous) averaging (±SD) 77 ± 33 DIM, 621 ± 71 kg of BW, and 43 ± 9 kg/d milk yield (MY), at the beginning of the study. Cows were housed in a freestall barn at The Pennsylvania State University's Dairy Teaching and Research Center equipped with a Calan Broadbent Feeding System (American Calan Inc.) for monitoring of individual DMI. The experiment had a 2-wk covariate period followed by 2 wk of adaptation and 6 wk of data and samples collection period (i.e., a total of 10 wk experiment). A basal diet was formulated based on average MY and DIM of the cows selected for the study and was fed throughout the 2-wk covariate period; the same basal diet was fed during the entire experiment with the addition of botanicals supplements, as specified below. Production data collected during the covariate period were used to adjust the formulated basal diet to meet or exceed NEL and MP requirements (
) of a multiparous cow weighing 650 kg of BW, producing 47 kg/d MY with 3.8% milk fat and 3.1% milk true protein, with 28 kg/d DMI. Cows were blocked into 16 blocks based on parity, DIM, and MY during the covariate period. Cows within block were randomly assigned to 1 of the following 3 treatments (16 cows/treatment): (1) basal diet supplemented with 300 mg/cow per day of ground corn grain (CON); (2) basal diet supplemented with 300 mg/cow per day of Capsicum oleoresin (CAP; AVT Natural North America); or (3) basal diet supplemented with 300 mg/cow per day of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove oil (CAPCO; AVT Natural North America). The dose of 300 mg/cow per day was determined based on a previous crossover study where we evaluated the effects of increasing doses of botanicals in the diet of lactating dairy cows (
Effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove essential oil on metabolic status, lactational performance, and enteric methane emissions in dairy cows.
). According to the manufacturer's specifications, CAP contained 1.25% of capsaicinoids, and CAPCO contained 1.25% capsaicinoids and 5.2% full spectrum standardized clove essential oil. The remainder of the products was a carrier consisting of fat used for encapsulation. The ruminal escape fraction of CAPCO was estimated to be 23%, based on a 24-h in situ incubation experiment (unpublished data by A. N. Hristov, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA) described in
Effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove essential oil on metabolic status, lactational performance, and enteric methane emissions in dairy cows.
), depending on dose. Premixes containing ground corn grain, canola oil, and botanicals were mixed once every other week using a commercial mixer fitted with a paddle attachment (Hobart H-600T 60-QT, The Hobart Manufacturing Co.). The premix composition was 88.0% ground corn grain, 11.9% canola oil, and 0.1% ground corn grain (CON), CAP, or CAPCO for the 3 treatments, respectively. Premixes containing the treatments were mixed daily with the basal diet, which was fed as a TMR, at 0.8% inclusion rate on a DM basis. A Rissler model 1050 TMR mixer (I. H. Rissler Mfg., LLC) was used to mix the premixes and deliver the TMR to the cows once a day, at approximately 0800 h. Feeding was ad libitum targeting 10% refusals and cows had free access to drinking water.
Sampling and Measurements
Diet and Feed Ingredients
Weights of the offered TMR and orts were recorded daily, and daily feed intake was measured during the entire experiment. Samples of forages and concentrate feeds were collected once weekly and TMR and orts samples were collected twice weekly. Samples were immediately dried for 72 h at 55°C in a forced-air oven and ground in a Wiley Mill (Thomas Scientific) through a 1-mm sieve. Total mixed ration and orts samples were composited by experimental week, on an equal DM basis, and forage and concentrates were composited for the entire experiment. Dry matter content of the weekly composited TMR and orts samples was used to calculate DMI of the cows. Composite samples of the feed ingredients were submitted to Cumberland Valley Analytical Services for wet chemistry analysis of CP (method 990.03;
Determination of starch, including maltooligosaccharides, in animal feeds: Comparison of methods and a method recommended for AOAC collaborative study.
. Nutrient composition of the diet (i.e., CP, aNDF, ADF, EE, starch, ash, Ca, and P) was reconstituted from the analyzed composition of individual feed ingredients and their inclusion rate in the TMR (Table 1). Estimated RDP, NEL, and MP were calculated using
considering average DMI, MY, milk composition, and BW of the cows throughout the experiment. Intake of nutrients was calculated based on nutrient composition of the offered TMR and DMI of individual cows during the week of digestibility data collection (see more information below).
Table 1Feed ingredients and nutrient composition of the basal diet fed to dairy cows during the experiment
6 GreenFeed pellets (Purina Stocker Grower) were used as an attractant to cows when visiting the GreenFeed units.
7 Premix (Renaissance Nutrition Inc.) contained (% of DM or as indicated) 11.6 CP, 4.6 ADF, 17.8 NDF, 16.3 Ca, 0.92 P, 2.63 Mg, 1.48 K, 15.1 Cl, 0.42 S, 9.81 Na, 23 mg/kg Co, 651 mg/kg Cu, 796 mg/kg Fe, 54 mg/kg I, 1,190 mg/kg Mn, 13 mg/kg Se, 1,721 mg/kg Zn, 195,000 IU/kg vitamin A, 62,500 IU/kg vitamin D, and 1,864 IU/kg vitamin E.
8 Premix contained 88.1% ground corn and 11.9% canola oil.
9 Premix contained 88.0% ground corn, 11.9% canola oil, and 0.14% CAP (Capsicum oleoresin) or CAPCO (Capsicum oleoresin and clove oil).
10 Values calculated using the nutrient analysis of the feed ingredients (Cumberland Valley Analytical Services Inc.) and their inclusion in the diets.
Cows were milked twice daily at 0600 and 1800 h, and milk production was automatically recorded (DeLaval milk meter, MM27BC) at each milking. Milk samples were collected during 2 consecutive days (a.m. and p.m. milkings) on the last week of the covariate period, and on experimental wk 6, 8, and 10. Milk samples were placed into 50-mL tubes containing bromo-2-nitropropane-1,3-diol and submitted to Dairy One (Dairy One Cooperative Inc.) for analysis of milk fat, milk true protein, lactose, TS, and MUN by infrared spectroscopy (MilkoScan 4000, Foss), and SCC by flow cytometry (Fossomatic models 5000 or FC; Foss Electric A/S). Separate, unpreserved samples were also collected as described above and stored at −20°C until further analysis. These samples were thawed, composited per cow, and analyzed for milk FA profile as described in
Induction of and recovery from milk fat depression occurs progressively in dairy cows switched between diets that differ in fiber and oil concentration.
. Milk composition data were weighted for the corresponding weekly averaged a.m. and p.m., and yields of milk fat, milk true protein, lactose, and TS were calculated from averaged MY and weighted milk composition during each sampling week. Energy-corrected milk yield was calculated as follows: ECM, kg/d = kg of milk × [(38.3 × % milk fat × 10 + 24.2 × (% milk true protein ÷ 0.93) × 10 + 16.54 × % lactose × 10 + 20.7) ÷ 3,140] (
A Nordic proposal for an energy corrected milk (ECM) formula.
in: 27th Session of the International Commission for Breeding and Productivity of Milk Animals, Paris, France. Wageningen Academic Publishers,
1990: 156-157
). Body weight was recorded by an automatic scale system (DeLaval, AWS100) twice daily upon cows exiting the milking parlor. Average BW was calculated for each cow in each experimental week. Body weight change was calculated as BW change, kg/d = [(average BW during experimental wk 10 − average BW during covariate wk 2) ÷ days on study]. Body condition score (
equations. Weekly averaged MY and concentrations of milk fat, milk true protein, and lactose were used to calculate milk energy output: milk NEL, Mcal/d = [MY × (0.0929 × milk fat + 0.0563 × milk true protein + 0.0395 × milk lactose)]. Energy used for BW gain was estimated as NEL BW gain, Mcal/d = (2.6854 + 0.8937 × BCS). Energy available from BW loss was estimated as NEL BW loss, Mcal/d = (2.1436 + 0.8491 × BCS). Total NEL supply (i.e., energy available for maintenance, MY, and BW gain) was calculated as total NEL supply, Mcal/d = [(BW change × −1 × NEL BW loss) + NEL intake]. Total NEL output (i.e., energy used for maintenance, MY, and BW gain) was calculated as total NEL output, Mcal/d = [milk NEL + (BW change × NEL BW gain)]. Efficiency of NEL utilization was calculated as follows: NEL efficiency, % = (total NEL output ÷ total NEL supply × 100).
Enteric Gas Emissions
Enteric gas (CH4, CO2, and H2) emissions were measured using the GreenFeed system (C-Lock Inc.). Two GreenFeed units were maintained and calibrated following the manufacturer's recommendations (https://globalresearchalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/GreenFeeds-SOP-_final.pdf; accessed Feb. 4, 2023). Cows were fitted with a unique radio-frequency identification ear tag for recognition by the GreenFeed system. Cows had free access to both GreenFeed units and were attracted by a pelletized bait feed (Stocker Grower 14, Purina Animal Nutrition LLC). The weight of the pellets dispensed daily was calculated based on the average weight and number of drops recorded at each individual visit. Total daily pellets intake was included in the calculation of individual DMI. Each cow was allowed a maximum of 6 visits in a 24-h period, with a 4-h interval between visits, and no more than 12 feed drops of approximately 32 g of pellets per visit. Average calculated daily intake and nutritional composition of pellets were used for reconstitution of the basal diet (Table 1). Weekly averages of emitted CH4, DMI, MY, and ECM yield were used to calculate weekly averages of CH4 yield (i.e., g/kg of DMI) and intensity (i.e., g/kg of MY and ECM).
Ruminal Fermentation
Samples of ruminal fluid were collected from a subset of 15 cows (5 blocks; i.e., 5 cows per treatment) during experimental wk 9 at approximately 1200 h (i.e., 4 h after feeding), using the stomach tubing technique (
). Approximately 200 mL of the initially sampled ruminal fluid was discarded to avoid possible saliva contamination. Whole ruminal contents were filtered through 2 layers of cheesecloth and the filtered ruminal fluid samples were analyzed immediately for pH (59000–60 pH Tester, Cole-Parmer Instrument Company). Aliquots of filtered rumen fluid were processed and later analyzed for VFA (
Spot fecal samples (approximately 300 g/cow) were collected at 0700, 1100, 1500, and 1900 h, in 2 consecutive days during wk 10 of the experiment. Fecal samples were oven-dried at 55°C for 72 h and ground using a Wiley Mill (Thomas Scientific) through a 1-mm sieve. Ground fecal samples were composited per cow and analyzed for CP (N × 6.25) using the Costech ECS 4010 C/N/S elemental analyzer (Costech Analytical Technologies Inc.), and aNDF and ADF using an Ankom 200 fiber analyzer (Ankom Technology Corp.). Total-tract apparent digestibility of nutrients was estimated using iNDF as an internal marker. Briefly, composited fecal samples were incubated for 12 d in the rumen of a lactating rumen-cannulated cow following
). The rumen-cannulated cow was fed a lactating diet containing corn silage, alfalfa haylage, ground corn, canola meal, whole cottonseed, whole roasted soybeans, molasses, cookie meal, and vitamin and mineral premix included at similar rates as the basal diet used in the current experiment. Urine samples (approximately 300 mL/cow) were collected at the same time points as for fecal samples and added to 2 M H2SO4 in the ratio of 60 mL of acid per 1,000 mL of urine to reach a pH <3.0. Acidified samples were diluted 1:10 with distilled water and stored at −20°C for further analyses. Urine samples were composited on an equal volume basis per cow and analyzed for urea N (UUN; Urea nitrogen kit 580; Stanbio Laboratory Inc.), uric acid (Uric acid kit 1045; Stanbio Laboratory Inc.), creatinine (Creatinine kit 420; Stanbio Laboratory Inc.), and allantoin (
). Composite urine samples were freeze-dried (HarvestRight Home Freeze Dryer) and analyzed for N using a Costech ECS 4010 C/N/S elemental analyzer (Costech Analytical Technologies Inc.). Daily urinary volume was estimated based on urinary creatinine concentration, assuming a creatinine excretion rate of 29 mg/kg BW (based on unpublished total urine collection data from
). Estimated daily urine output was used to calculate daily excretions of urine N, UUN, and purine derivatives (PD; allantoin and uric acid). Total excreta N was calculated as the sum of excreted urine and fecal N. Unaccounted N was calculated as follows: unaccounted N, g/d = [(N intake – (total excreta N + milk N)]. Milk N secretion was calculated as: Milk N, g/d = [(Milk true protein ÷ 6.38) + MUN].
Blood Sampling
Blood samples were collected from the tail vein or artery using a 20-gauge × 2.54 mm needle into 9-mL Vacutainer tubes containing sodium heparin (BD Vacutainer) at 1030 h during experimental wk 10. Samples were centrifuged at 1,500 × g at 4°C for 15 min for plasma collection. Plasma samples were composited per cow and stored frozen at −20°C until analyzed for total FA (HR Series NEFA-HR, Wako Diagnostics), BHB (Autokit 3-HB Microliter Procedure; Wako Diagnostics), insulin (Mercordia Bovine Insulin ELISA, Mercodia AB), and haptoglobin (PHASE Haptoglobin Assay, Tridelta Development Ltd.).
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analyses were performed using SAS (release 9.4, SAS Institute Inc.). Two cows (CAP and CAPCO treatments) were removed from the experiment after they were diagnosed with chronic mastitis (i.e., Prototheca bovis infection) during experimental wk 5, and 1 cow (CON treatment) was removed during experimental wk 9 after being diagnosed with coxofemoral luxation. Data collected from these cows before their removal date remained in the analysis. Data were tested for normality using the UNIVARIATE procedure and processed for outlier identification based on an absolute studentized residual value greater than 3 using PROC REG. Log-transformed data were analyzed when the W statistic of the Shapiro-Wilk test was less than 0.05 (i.e., SCC data). Statistical analyses were completed using the MIXED procedure. Production and enteric gas emissions data (DMI, MY, milk composition, milk components yield, feed efficiency, ECM, ECM feed efficiency, BW, NEL efficiency, CH4, CO2, and H2 production, and CH4 yield and intensity) were averaged by week and the averaged values were used in the statistical analysis. The statistical models included the fixed effects of treatment, week, treatment × week interaction, and the covariate measurement. The effects of parity and treatment × parity interaction were tested and removed from the final models if nonsignificant (P > 0.10). Block and block × treatment were random effects. Week was the repeated term, AR(1) was the covariance structure, and the nested effect of cow (block × treatment) was the subject for all repeated measures models. Nutrient intake, nutrient digestibility, urinary excretions and N utilization, BW change, BCS, FA composition of milk fat, and ruminal fermentation data were analyzed as described above without the repeated term. Means were separated by pairwise t-test (diff option of PROC MIXED). Statistical differences were considered at P ≤ 0.05, and tendency was declared at 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10. Production and enteric gas emissions data are presented as covariate-adjusted least squares means.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The objective of this study was to investigate lactational performance, enteric gas emissions, ruminal fermentation, nutrient digestibility, milk FA profile, N use efficiency, and blood energy and inflammatory markers of dairy cows supplemented with CAP or CAPCO. The supplementation of botanicals did not affect DMI, MY, and milk components of dairy cows in this study (Table 2). It should be noted, however, that DMI and MY were numerically increased (1.6 and 2.0 kg/d, respectively) by CAPCO, compared with CON, and ECM was numerically increased (1.9 kg/d) by CAPCO, compared with CAP. There was a treatment × week interaction (P = 0.02; Figure 1A) for FE, whereas cows supplemented with CAPCO tended (P = 0.08) to have higher FE than CAP (1.62 vs. 1.51 kg/kg, respectively) during experimental wk 8, and both were not different from CON (1.53 kg/kg). On experimental wk 10, CON tended (P = 0.07) to have a greater FE than CAP and had a greater (P = 0.03) FE than CAPCO (1.57 vs. 1.45 and 1.47 kg/kg, respectively). These results were likely a consequence of similar DMI (Figure 1B) and numerically higher MY (Figure 1C) of CAPCO cows during experimental wk 8, and higher DMI of CAPCO cows with similar MY during experimental wk 10, compared with CON and CAP. Concentration of MUN tended (P = 0.09) to be increased by CAP, and was increased (P = 0.03) by CAPCO supplementation relative to CON. There was a treatment × week interaction (P = 0.03) for BW. Both CAP and CAPCO cows had greater BW than CON on the last 2 wk of the experiment (Figure 2). Cows on CAP and CAPCO treatments gained 0.85 and 0.66 kg/d BW, respectively, and CON cows maintained BW (−0.01 kg/d) throughout the experiment (P = 0.04). Compared with CON, the efficiency of utilization of dietary NEL was increased (P < 0.01) by CAP supplementation.
Table 2Lactational performance of dairy cows fed a basal diet with or without supplementation of botanicals
Largest SEM published in table; n = 276 for DMI; n = 275 for milk yield and feed efficiency; n = 261 for BW; n = 45 and 41 for BW change and BCS, respectively; n = 132 to 137 for all other variables (n represents number of observations used in the statistical analysis).
Main effects of treatment (T) and week (W), and T × W interaction effect. Parity effect: P ≤ 0.05 for milk yield, milk lactose % and yield, milk TS yield, and NEL intake; P ≥ 0.06 for all other variables. Treatment × parity interaction: P > 0.11 for all variables.
Means with different superscript letters differ at P ≤ 0.05 separated by pairwise t-test.
3.50
<0.01
<0.001
0.17
a,b Means with different superscript letters differ at P ≤ 0.05 separated by pairwise t-test.
x,y Means with different superscript letters differ at 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10 separated by pairwise t-test.
1 CON = control; CAP = Capsicum oleoresin; CAPCO = Capsicum oleoresin + clove oil.
2 Main effects of treatment (T) and week (W), and T × W interaction effect. Parity effect: P ≤ 0.05 for milk yield, milk lactose % and yield, milk TS yield, and NEL intake; P ≥ 0.06 for all other variables. Treatment × parity interaction: P > 0.11 for all variables.
3 Largest SEM published in table; n = 276 for DMI; n = 275 for milk yield and feed efficiency; n = 261 for BW; n = 45 and 41 for BW change and BCS, respectively; n = 132 to 137 for all other variables (n represents number of observations used in the statistical analysis).
4 Feed efficiency = kg of milk ÷ kg of DMI.
5 ECM feed efficiency = kg of ECM ÷ kg of DMI.
6 Statistical analysis was performed on log-transformed data. Actual data (×103 cells/mL) are given in parentheses.
7 BW change: [(average BW during experimental wk 10 − average BW during covariate wk 2) ÷ days on study].
8 NEL output efficiency, % = (corrected NEL milk ÷ corrected NEL intake × 100). See the Materials and Methods section for more details.
Figure 1Feed efficiency (kg/kg; A), DMI (kg/d; B), and milk yield (kg/d; C) of dairy cows fed a basal diet with or without supplementation of botanicals. CON = control, CAP = Capsicum oleoresin, CAPCO = Capsicum oleoresin + clove oil. Statistically significant differences are indicated by an asterisk (P < 0.05), and tendencies are indicated by a cross (0.05 < P ≤ 0.10). Shaded gray area represents the data collected during the 2-wk adaptation period (data not used for statistical analysis). Error bars represent SEM.
Figure 2Body weight (kg) of dairy cows fed a basal diet with or without supplementation of botanicals. CON = control, CAP = Capsicum oleoresin, CAPCO = Capsicum oleoresin + clove oil. Statistically significant differences of CAP and CAPCO, compared with CON, are indicated by an asterisk (P < 0.05). Shaded gray area represents the data collected during the 2-wk adaptation period (data not used for statistical analysis). Error bars represent SEM.
Effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove essential oil on metabolic status, lactational performance, and enteric methane emissions in dairy cows.
Effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove essential oil on metabolic status, lactational performance, and enteric methane emissions in dairy cows.
) in peak-lactation dairy cows. Both treatments, CAP and CAPCO, appeared to enhance energy balance of the cows, but energy utilization was shifted toward BW gain rather than milk or ECM production, and NEL output efficiency was increased by CAP treatment only. It is important to note, however, that energy efficiency variables were estimated based on
equations using weekly averaged production variables and data should be interpreted with caution. Nevertheless, botanical supplementation seemed to affect BW change of peak-lactation dairy cows, aligning with the assumption of shifted energy utilization and the hypothesis of increased efficiency in treated cows. The current study also demonstrates a longer-term effect of botanicals than the study by
Effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove essential oil on metabolic status, lactational performance, and enteric methane emissions in dairy cows.
, where CAPCO supplementation was evaluated in a crossover design experiment. Regardless of the differences in experimental design and time in which cows and rumen microbes were exposed to the botanicals,
Effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove essential oil on metabolic status, lactational performance, and enteric methane emissions in dairy cows.
also did not report major differences in lactational performance of increasing doses (150, 300, and 600 mg/d) of CAPCO, except for a tendency for increased milk fat concentration in treated cows.
Effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove essential oil on metabolic status, lactational performance, and enteric methane emissions in dairy cows.
speculated that changes in milk fat concentration could be associated with an increased BHB uptake by the mammary gland, which corroborated with the quadratically decreased blood BHB concentration reported in that study. It should be noted, however, that milk fat and blood BHB concentrations were not affected in the present study, as discussed later.
indicated that supplementation of capsaicin during the transition period could be responsible for decreasing lipolysis and enhancing metabolic status before parturition, although blood insulin, glucose, and BHB concentrations were not affected postpartum. Nonetheless, MY tended to be increased by 3.4 and 4.3 kg/d during the first and third weeks postpartum, respectively, in cows supplemented with capsaicin at 100 mg/d throughout the transition period (
reported increased MY and FCM in dairy cows supplemented with 0.75 or 1.5 g/d encapsulated pepper containing 0.5% capsaicinoids. Both studies also reported increased milk fat concentration in cows receiving the pepper treatment, which agrees with data reported in the literature.
Dietary supplementation of eugenol (the bioactive compound of clove oil) at 50 mg/kg DMI (
Eugenol for dairy cows fed low or high concentrate diets: Effects on digestion, ruminal fermentation characteristics, rumen microbial populations and milk fatty acid profile.
) did not affect lactational performance, digestibility of nutrients, ruminal fermentation, or N excretion in lactating dairy cows. It is important to note that 50 mg/kg of DMI of eugenol represents a total supplementation of 1,250 mg of eugenol/cow per day at 25 kg/d DMI, which could be considered as extremely high dosage compared with the concentration of eugenol used in the current study. Nevertheless, combinations of eugenol with other phytonutrients have produced variable responses in lactating animals. For example,
reported a treatment × parity interaction for MY and milk components in cows supplemented with 350 mg/d (experiment 1) or increasing doses (200, 400, 600 mg/d; experiment 2) of a combination containing 17% cinnamaldehyde and 28% eugenol. In that study, MY was increased in multiparous but not in primiparous cows in experiment 1 and decreased in multiparous cows fed 400 and 600 mg/d in experiment 2. Conversely, primiparous cows had increased MY when their diet was supplemented with 200 and 600 mg/d of the blend in experiment 2. Considering the wide-spectrum activity of eugenol against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and the relatively reduced antimicrobial activity of capsaicin (
), it is plausible to speculate that postruminal effects of CAP were responsible for changing energy utilization in the cows, and that ruminal effects of eugenol (or the associative effect of eugenol with CAP) were responsible for altering ruminal fermentation, as discussed later in this article. It is important to note, however, that the effects of eugenol (i.e., clove oil supplementation) alone were not investigated in the present study.
Botanical supplementation did not affect enteric CH4 production, but CAPCO decreased enteric CH4 yield (P = 0.05) and intensity (per kg of MY; P < 0.01) by 9% and 11%, respectively, compared with CON and CAP (Table 3). Treatment × parity interactions (P ≤ 0.06) were observed for CH4 production, yield, and intensity (per kg of MY). Compared with CON and CAP, the supplementation of CAPCO decreased (P < 0.01) enteric CH4 production, yield, and intensity (per kg of MY) by up to 18% in primiparous, but not in multiparous cows. Methane intensity per kilogram of ECM and CO2 production were not affected by treatments. Compared with CON and CAP, H2 production was decreased (P < 0.01) and tended (P = 0.09) to be decreased by CAPCO supplementation, respectively. The average (±SD) number of pellets drops and cow visits to the GreenFeed units were 42 ± 23.3 drops/cow per day and 3 ± 2.2 visits/cow per day during the experimental period, respectively. There was no difference (P = 0.16) in the frequency of visits of cows to GreenFeeds among treatments in the current study.
Effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove essential oil on metabolic status, lactational performance, and enteric methane emissions in dairy cows.
reported a reduction of CH4 production, CH4 yield, and a tendency for decreased CH4 intensity (per kg of MY) in dairy cows (12 multiparous and 8 primiparous cows) supplemented with increasing doses (150, 300, and 600 mg/d) of CAPCO. The lack of effects of CAP supplementation on CH4 emission variables along with the tendency (P = 0.08) for increased CH4 production and the increased (P = 0.04) CH4 yield in primiparous cows by CAP, compared with CON, indicate that the mitigation effect of CAPCO is likely related to clove oil or an associative effect of clove oil and CAP. This aligns with existing literature demonstrating an extensive CH4 mitigation effect by clove bud, leaf, and oil supplementation in vitro reported by
. It is noted, however, that the mitigation effect of CAPCO was evident in primiparous, but not in multiparous cows, even though the present study was not originally designed to evaluate treatment × parity interaction for the effects of botanical supplementation. Treatment × parity interactions were tested in the statistical models because we enrolled a relatively high number (n = 18) of primiparous cows in the study, and more data are needed on differential responses to botanical supplementation in primiparous versus multiparous cows. The mechanisms by which CAPCO supplementation interacted with parity in the current study are not clear. A possibility is that the lower DMI (22.6 and 27.0 kg/d DMI on average for primiparous and multiparous cows, respectively), and consequently lower passage rate in primiparous cows increased feed retention time in the rumen and allowed for a longer treatment time of the botanicals, compared with multiparous cows.
Table 3Enteric gas emissions of dairy cows fed a basal diet with or without supplementation of botanicals
Largest SEM published in table; n = 120 for CH4 per ECM; n = 258 to 261 for all other variables (n represents number of observations used in the statistical analysis).
Main effects of treatment (T) and week (W), and T × W interaction effect. Parity effect: P ≥ 0.13 for all variables. Treatment × parity interaction: P = 0.06 for CH4 and CH4 per DMI; P = 0.05 for CH4 per milk yield; P ≥ 0.14 for all other variables.
Means with different superscript letters differ at 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10 separated by pairwise t-test.
0.102
0.02
<0.001
0.55
a–c Means with different superscript letters differ at P ≤ 0.05 separated by pairwise t-test.
x,y Means with different superscript letters differ at 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10 separated by pairwise t-test.
1 CON = control; CAP = Capsicum oleoresin; CAPCO = Capsicum oleoresin + clove oil.
2 Main effects of treatment (T) and week (W), and T × W interaction effect. Parity effect: P ≥ 0.13 for all variables. Treatment × parity interaction: P = 0.06 for CH4 and CH4 per DMI; P = 0.05 for CH4 per milk yield; P ≥ 0.14 for all other variables.
3 Largest SEM published in table; n = 120 for CH4 per ECM; n = 258 to 261 for all other variables (n represents number of observations used in the statistical analysis).
Rumen pH, NH3, VFA, acetate, butyrate, valerate, and acetate to propionate ratio were not affected by CAP or CAPCO supplementation, compared with CON (Table 4). Propionate concentration, in contrast, was decreased (P = 0.02) by CAP and CAPCO relative to CON. Isobutyrate and isovalerate concentrations tended (P = 0.08) to be increased by CAP supplementation, compared with CON. Based on ruminal fermentation and enteric gas emissions data, it is plausible to postulate that decreased propionate concentration and enteric CH4 emissions reflected a decrease in H2 availability as a consequence of the inhibition of rumen H2-producing microorganisms (e.g., bacteria and protozoa) by CAPCO. Alternatively, the inhibition of H2-producing microorganisms by CAPCO could also be a consequence of the inhibition of methanogens, which would result in a momentary H2 accumulation in the rumen (
). Accumulation of H2 could favor propionate synthesis if precursors are available, but the low dietary starch concentration (21.9% of DM) and the tendency for decreased starch digestibility (see later discussion) could have limited propionate production in the current study. Nevertheless, this assumption cannot be sustained when considering the effect of CAP on CH4 and H2 production, compared with CON, and decreased propionate production seemed not to affect glucose availability for lactose synthesis by the mammary gland. There is a lack of studies evaluating the effects of CAP and clove oil, alone or in combination with other botanicals, and only some studies reported ruminal fermentation data evaluated in vivo (
). Acetate to propionate ratio was decreased, and NH3, isobutyrate, and isovalerate concentrations were increased in ruminal fluid of dairy cows fed a diet supplemented at 525 mg/d of a combination containing 17% cinnamaldehyde and 28% eugenol (
). Capsaicin, in contrast, did not affect any of the fermentation parameters at any dose, except for decreasing NH3 concentration when supplemented at an extremely high dose (i.e., 3,000 mg/L rumen fluid;
Largest SEM published in table; n = 15 (3 treatments × 5 cows) for all variables (n represents number of observations used in the statistical analysis).
Means with different superscript letters differ at P ≤ 0.05 separated by pairwise t-test.
0.097
0.08
Acetate:propionate
2.43
2.78
2.87
0.263
0.14
a,b Means with different superscript letters differ at P ≤ 0.05 separated by pairwise t-test.
1 CON = control; CAP = Capsicum oleoresin; CAPCO = Capsicum oleoresin + clove oil.
2 Largest SEM published in table; n = 15 (3 treatments × 5 cows) for all variables (n represents number of observations used in the statistical analysis).
3 Main effect of treatment. Parity effect: P ≥ 0.13 for all variables. Treatment × parity interaction: P ≥ 0.15 for all variables.
), indicating that CAP supplementation could affect rumen bacteria involved in protein and starch metabolism. Indeed, starch digestibility tended to be slightly decreased by CAP and CAPCO, indicating that a similar inhibitory effect might have also occurred in the present study. More evidence for the effects of botanicals on bacterial species was provided by
, where decreased abundance of Selenomonas ruminantium was attributed to the supplementation of Capsicum in a phytochemical containing tannins. Considering the proteolytic, ureolytic, and amylolytic role of Prevotella spp. and S. ruminantium, it should be expected that the inhibition of these bacteria would contribute for decreased ruminal concentrations of propionate and branched-chain VFA (BCVFA); however, BCVFA was increased by CAP supplementation in the current study. A possible explanation for this atypical response is that the inhibition of Prevotella ruminicola by CAP would reduce the carboxylation of BCVFA to BCAA (
), thus resulting in increased concentrations of isovalerate and isobutyrate in the rumen. It is important to note, however, that the current study was not designed to investigate effects of botanicals on rumen microbiome, and the ruminal fermentation data should be interpreted with caution because of limitations associated with the stomach tubing technique (
Intake of nutrients during the digestibility data collection period (i.e., experimental wk 10) tended (P = 0.08) to be increased by CAPCO supplementation, compared with CON and CAP (Table 5). Total-tract digestibility of nutrients, in contrast, was not affected by treatments, except for a tendency (P = 0.09) for decreased starch digestibility. Supplementation of CAPCO decreased (P = 0.04) starch digestibility, whereas CAP tended (P = 0.07) to decrease starch digestibility compared with CON. A tendency (P = 0.07) for treatment × parity interaction was observed for CP digestibility but means separation statistics within parity were not significant. Decreased starch digestibility results align with the decreased concentrations of propionate and H2 in the rumen, strengthening the assumption that botanicals might have inhibited H2-producing microorganisms, as previously discussed. Research have demonstrated that capsaicin contributed to increased appetite and food intake by promoting gastric emptying and decreasing leptin levels in humans and rats (
). Conversely, more recent research has demonstrated the potential of red pepper to suppress energy intake through appetite and satiety regulation, contributing to prevention and treatment of obesity in humans (
Effects of alfalfa extract, anise, capsicum, and a mixture of cinnamaldehyde and eugenol on ruminal fermentation and protein degradation in beef heifers fed a high-concentrate diet.
). The lack of effect of CAP on DMI suggests that the increased DMI by CAPCO may be a result of clove oil (or an associative effect of clove oil and CAP) in the current study. A treatment × parity interaction for increased DMI in multiparous or primiparous cows supplemented with a combination of cinnamaldehyde and eugenol has been demonstrated in the experiments by
could also be related to cinnamaldehyde rather than eugenol supplementation. The combination of cinnamaldehyde and eugenol, and cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, and Capsicum oleoresin, in contrast, did not affect DMI of lactating dairy cows in the studies by
, respectively. It is possible that DMI responses to botanicals in dairy cows depend on the metabolic state of the animal (e.g., increased vs. decreased satiety) and interactions among botanicals, dietary factors, and physiological state that could influence postabsorptive metabolism of nutrients.
Table 5Intake and total-tract apparent digestibility of nutrients in dairy cows fed a basal diet with or without supplementation of botanicals
Main effect of treatment. Parity effect: P = 0.01 for intake of nutrients; P ≥ 0.16 for all other variables. Treatment × parity interaction: P = 0.07 for CP digestibility; P ≥ 0.30 for all other variables.
Means with different superscript letters differ at 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10 separated by pairwise t-test.
0.34
0.09
a,b Means with different superscript letters differ at P ≤ 0.05 separated by pairwise t-test.
x,y Means with different superscript letters differ at 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10 separated by pairwise t-test.
1 CON = control; CAP = Capsicum oleoresin; CAPCO = Capsicum oleoresin + clove oil.
2 Largest SEM published in table; n = 44 to 45 for all variables (n represents number of observations used in the statistical analysis).
3 Main effect of treatment. Parity effect: P = 0.01 for intake of nutrients; P ≥ 0.16 for all other variables. Treatment × parity interaction: P = 0.07 for CP digestibility; P ≥ 0.30 for all other variables.
4 P-values for intake of dietary nutrients are the same as for DMI.
5 Intake during digestibility data collection period.
Data for FA composition of milk fat are presented in Table 6. Overall, CAP decreased (P ≤ 0.03) C6:0, C8:0, C10:0, C12:0, and C14:0, compared with CON and CAPCO. Treatment × parity interactions (P ≤ 0.09) indicated that CAP decreased the above short- and medium-chain FA in multiparous cows, compared with CON and CAPCO and their concentrations were also decreased by CAPCO in primiparous cows. Additionally, compared with CON, CAP tended (P = 0.06) to increase C17:0; tended (P = 0.06) to decrease trans-5 C18:1, trans-6,8 C18:1, trans-11 C18:1; and decreased (P = 0.03) trans-12 C18:1. A treatment × parity interaction (P = 0.01) indicated increased (P = 0.04) concentration of cis-9 C18:1 in primiparous cows supplemented with CAPCO relative to CON and CAP, and a tendency (P = 0.07) for decreased concentration of that FA in multiparous cows supplemented with CAPCO relative to CAP only. Total trans FA were decreased (P = 0.03) and tended (P = 0.06) to be decreased by CAP and CAPCO, respectively, compared with CON. Despite differences in milk <14 C FA, CLA and the sum of de novo synthesized FA were not affected by treatment. These results align with the lack of differences in milk fat concentration and yield among treatments. Contrary to our data, decreased cis-9,trans-11 CLA and increased milk fat yield and concentration were reported in dairy cows supplemented with CAP (
Effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove essential oil on metabolic status, lactational performance, and enteric methane emissions in dairy cows.
Effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove essential oil on metabolic status, lactational performance, and enteric methane emissions in dairy cows.
also reported a numerical decrease in trans-11 C18:1 concentration in dairy cows supplemented with CAPCO and a blend of botanicals containing CAP and eugenol, respectively. Milk FA profile can be used as an indicator for ruminal fermentation and metabolic status of dairy cows. Despite differences in CH4 emissions, ruminal propionate and BCVFA concentrations, and starch digestibility, milk odd- and branched-chain, and iso- and anteiso-FA, suggested as proxies for rumen bacteria and fermentation (
), were not affected by treatment in the current study.
Table 6Fatty acid composition of milk fat (g/100 g of fatty acids; FA) in dairy cows fed a basal diet with or without supplementation of rumen-protected botanicals
Main effect of treatment. Parity effect: P ≤ 0.10 for C4:0, C14:0, cis-9 C16:1, C18:0, cis-9 C18:1, and Σ de novo; P ≥ 0.11 for all other variables. Treatment × parity interaction: P ≤ 0.09 for C6:0, C8:0, C10:0, C12:0, C14:0, cis-9 C18:1, and cis-9,trans-11 CLA; P ≥ 0.12 for all other variables.
Σ OBCFA = sum of identified odd- and branched-chain fatty acids (OBCFA), branched-chain fatty acids (BCFA; iso C14:0 to iso C17:0, anteiso C15:0 to anteiso C17:0), odd-chain fatty acids (OCFA; C11:0 to C17:0), iso branched-chain fatty acids (iso-FA; iso C14:0 to iso C17:0), and anteiso branched-chain fatty acids (anteiso-FA; anteiso C15:0 to anteiso C17:0).
3.20
3.11
3.17
0.056
0.38
BCFA
1.49
1.52
1.48
0.026
0.53
OCFA
1.70
1.59
1.72
0.060
0.28
iso-FA
0.73
0.73
0.71
0.018
0.57
anteiso-FA
0.77
0.79
0.78
0.016
0.63
a,b Means with different superscript letters differ at P ≤ 0.05 separated by pairwise t-test.
x,y Means with different superscript letters differ at 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10 separated by pairwise t-test.
1 CON = control; CAP = Capsicum oleoresin; CAPCO = Capsicum oleoresin + clove oil.
2 Largest SEM published in table; n = 43 to 45 for all variables (n represents number of observations used in the statistical analysis).
3 Main effect of treatment. Parity effect: P ≤ 0.10 for C4:0, C14:0, cis-9 C16:1, C18:0, cis-9 C18:1, and Σ de novo; P ≥ 0.11 for all other variables. Treatment × parity interaction: P ≤ 0.09 for C6:0, C8:0, C10:0, C12:0, C14:0, cis-9 C18:1, and cis-9,trans-11 CLA; P ≥ 0.12 for all other variables.
4 Σ De novo = sum of C4:0, C6:0, C8:0, C10:0, C12:0, C14:0, and cis-9 C14:1.
5 Σ Mixed = sum of C16:0, cis-9 C16:1, and C17:0.
6 Σ Preformed = sum of ≥18 C.
7 Σ OBCFA = sum of identified odd- and branched-chain fatty acids (OBCFA), branched-chain fatty acids (BCFA; iso C14:0 to iso C17:0, anteiso C15:0 to anteiso C17:0), odd-chain fatty acids (OCFA; C11:0 to C17:0), iso branched-chain fatty acids (iso-FA; iso C14:0 to iso C17:0), and anteiso branched-chain fatty acids (anteiso-FA; anteiso C15:0 to anteiso C17:0).
Urine output and urinary excretions of N and UUN (g/d and as % of N intake) were not affected by treatments (Table 7). A treatment × parity interaction (P = 0.08) indicated that fecal N (g/d) tended to be increased by CAPCO in multiparous but not in primiparous cows, compared with CON and CAP. Additionally, total excreta N was decreased (P = 0.02) by CAP supplementation in multiparous cows, compared with CAPCO and CON. Unaccounted N (g/d) tended (P = 0.09) to be increased by CAPCO, whereas intermediate values were observed for CAP, compared with CON. A tendency (P = 0.06) for treatment × parity interaction was observed for fecal N and a treatment × parity interaction (P = 0.05) was observed for total excreta N (as % of N intake); however, means separation statistics within parity were not significant for fecal N. Multiparous cows supplemented with CAP had decreased (P = 0.05) total excreta N, compared with CON and CAPCO. Urinary excretion of uric acid tended (P = 0.07) to be decreased by CAPCO supplementation in primiparous, but not in multiparous cows, compared with CON and CAP. Treatment × parity interactions were observed for allantoin (P = 0.07) and total PD (P = 0.05), but means separation statistics within parity were not significant for both variables.
Table 7Urinary excretions and N utilization in dairy cows fed a basal diet with or without supplementation of botanicals
Main effect of treatment. Parity effect: P ≤ 0.05 for N intake, unaccounted N (g/d and %), total excreta N (%), and milk N (%); P ≥ 0.07 for all other variables. Treatment × parity interaction: P ≤ 0.09 for fecal N (g/d and %), total excreta N (g/d and %), allantoin, uric acid, and total purine derivatives (PD); P ≥ 0.18 for all other variables.
Means with different superscript letters differ at 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10 separated by pairwise t-test.
12.06
0.07
Multiparous
58.5
73.0
78.3
8.99
0.22
Total PD
825
929
829
76.7
0.51
Primiparous
945
1,021
716
149.4
0.15
Multiparous
702
841
941
85.8
0.12
a,b Means with different superscript letters differ at P ≤ 0.05 separated by pairwise t-test.
x,y Means with different superscript letters differ at 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10 separated by pairwise t-test.
1 CON = control; CAP = Capsicum oleoresin; CAPCO = Capsicum oleoresin + clove oil.
2 Largest SEM published in table; n = 43 to 45 for all variables (n represents number of observations used in the statistical analysis).
3 Main effect of treatment. Parity effect: P ≤ 0.05 for N intake, unaccounted N (g/d and %), total excreta N (%), and milk N (%); P ≥ 0.07 for all other variables. Treatment × parity interaction: P ≤ 0.09 for fecal N (g/d and %), total excreta N (g/d and %), allantoin, uric acid, and total purine derivatives (PD); P ≥ 0.18 for all other variables.
4 Intake during digestibility and urine data collection period.
Considering the effects of botanicals on starch digestibility and a potential reduction of energy availability for ruminal fermentation, it is possible to postulate that ruminal NH3 absorption was increased, and the excess of N was excreted in milk, corroborating with the tendency for increased MUN data herein reported, compared with CON. Milk urea N was either increased or tended to be increased in studies evaluating a combination of cinnamaldehyde and eugenol, or CAPCO (
Effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove essential oil on metabolic status, lactational performance, and enteric methane emissions in dairy cows.
also described increased MUN in primiparous but decreased MUN in multiparous cows fed 600 mg/d cinnamaldehyde and eugenol. Similarly, 350 mg/d of the same botanicals decreased MUN concentration in primiparous cows in
; experiment 1). It should be noted, however, that total excreta N (%) was decreased by CAP in the current study, indicating increased N retention in multiparous cows. This aligns with the effects of CAP and CAPCO on unaccounted N and can be associated with BW gain of the cows observed in this study (i.e., partitioning of N toward BW gain). These data, however, should be interpreted with caution since unaccounted N was high, and N partitioned to BW gain was not directly measured. Nevertheless,
Effects of a combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove essential oil on metabolic status, lactational performance, and enteric methane emissions in dairy cows.
reported over 20% of unaccounted N in their study, aligning with the data described in this article.
Plasma total FA, BHB, and insulin concentrations were not affected by treatments (Table 8). Overall haptoglobin concentration was also not affected by treatments, but there was a treatment × parity interaction (P = 0.03). Compared with CON and CAPCO, CAP increased (P = 0.02) and tended (P = 0.06) to increase, respectively, plasma haptoglobin concentration in multiparous but not in primiparous cows. Based on BW, BW change, and NEL efficiency data, changes in the concentration of blood energy metabolism markers and hormones were expected. Capsaicin tended to increase BHB in early-lactation dairy cows fed 250, 500, and 1,000 mg/d (
study. It is possible that capsaicin could enhance or decrease lipolysis depending on the metabolic state of the animal via insulin regulation. For instance, capsaicin may improve insulin sensitivity in early-lactation dairy cows, and this could help explaining why cows supplemented with botanicals in the current study had greater energy use efficiency for BW gain, compared with CON. Insulin concentration was decreased during glucose (
. It is not clear whether changes in metabolism by phytonutrients are dependent on the physiological and metabolic states of dairy cows (e.g., fresh vs. early, mid, and late lactation), but these studies have indicated that interaction with stage of lactation may be important and should be addressed in future research.
Table 8Blood plasma metabolites in dairy cows fed a basal diet with or without supplementation of botanicals
Main effect of treatment. Parity effect: P ≥ 0.28 for all variables. Treatment × parity interaction: P = 0.03 for haptoglobin; P ≥ 0.21 for all other variables.
Means with different superscript letters differ at 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10 separated by pairwise t-test.
0.047
0.04
a,b Means with different superscript letters differ at P ≤ 0.05 separated by pairwise t-test.
x,y Means with different superscript letters differ at 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10 separated by pairwise t-test.
1 CON = control; CAP = Capsicum oleoresin; CAPCO = Capsicum oleoresin + clove oil.
2 Largest SEM published in table; n = 43 to 45 for all variables (n represents number of observations used in the statistical analysis).
3 Main effect of treatment. Parity effect: P ≥ 0.28 for all variables. Treatment × parity interaction: P = 0.03 for haptoglobin; P ≥ 0.21 for all other variables.
Supplementation with botanicals improved efficiency of energy utilization in peak-lactation dairy cows, but the available energy was used for BW gain rather than milk yield or milk components. Energy markers in blood (i.e., total FA, BHB, and insulin), however, were not affected by botanical supplementation in the current study. Methane yield and intensity (per kg of MY) were decreased by 11% by the combination of Capsicum oleoresin and clove oil, and a treatment × parity interaction indicated a mitigation effect in primiparous but not multiparous cows. Based on these results, we conclude that Capsicum oleoresin may have affected energy and N utilization of the cows, whereas the ruminal fermentation and CH4 mitigation effects were likely triggered by an associative effect of Capsicum oleoresin and clove oil, or clove oil alone.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the USDA (Washington, DC) National Institute of Food and Agriculture Federal Appropriations under Project PEN 04539 and Accession Number 1000803. The authors thank AVT Natural (North America; Santa Clara, CA) for providing partial financial support for this project, and the staff of The Pennsylvania State University's Dairy Teaching and Research Center (State College, PA) for their conscientious care of the experimental cows. The authors have not stated any conflicts of interest.
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